Preface
Abbreviation
PART
A
Chapter 1
1 Introduction
1.1 What is it?
l. 2 Breaking bonds
l. 3 Oxidation and reduction
l. 4 Photosynthesis as an
oxidation/reduction
l. 5 Winding the biological mainspring
l. 6 Photosynthesis as the source of
organic carbon
l. 7 Analogy and epitaph
Chapter 2 Energy and Laws
2. l The laws of thermodynamics
2. 2 The system
2. 3 Entropy(s)
2. 4 Free energy
2. 5 Free energy and equilibria
2. 6 Energy units
2. 7 The energy required for the formation of
carbohydrate
2. 8 Bond energies
2. 9 Splitting water
2. l0 Resonance
2. 11 The free energy of hydrolysis of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
2. 12 ATP as a component of ‘assimilatory power’
2. 13 Redox potentials
3 .l Where it all starts
3. 2 Light as a waveform
3. 3 Light as a stream of particles
3. 4 Quanta
3. 5 The energy of light
3. 6 Light
intensity
3. 7 Sunlight and candles
3. 8 The green man
3. 9 Quantum efficiency
3. l0 Photosynthetic efficiency at the molecular
level
3. 11 Maximum photosynthetic efficiency of crops
3. l2 Maximum yield
Chapter 4 The
Photochemical Apparatus and its Function
4.
1 Chloroplast structure
4.
2 The thylakoid compartment
4.
3 The stromal compartment
4.
4 Membrane structure
4.
5 Chlorophylls
4.
6 Chlorophyll synthesis
4.
7 The accessory pigments
4.
8 Chicken and egg
4.
9 Components of the electron transport chain
4.
10 The photosynthetic unit
4.
11 The pigment systems
4.
12 Reaction centres
4.
13 The photosystems (PSI and PSII)
4.14
Atomic absorption
4.15
Molecular absorption
4.16
Excitation of chlorophyll
4.17
De-excitation
4.18
Photochemistry and O2 evolution
4.19
Energy transfer within the pigment systems
4.20
Action spectra
4.21
The red drop
4.22
Enhancement
4.23
The Z-scheme
4.24
P/e ratios
4.25
Energy conservation in the Z-scheme
4.
26 Quantum requirement of the Z-scheme
Chapter 5 The Formation of ATP; the Generation
of Assimilatory Power
5.1
Oxidative phosphorylation
5.2
The need for assimilatory power
5.3
Cyclic photophosphorylation
5.4
Cyclic photophosphorylation catalysed by ferredoxin
5.5
Cyclic photophosphorylation in vivo
5.6
Pseudocyclic photophosphorylation
5.7
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
5.8
The Mehler reaction
5.9
Chemiosmosis and the establishment of an electrochemical potential difference or protonmotive
force
5.10
The mechanism of ATP formation
5.11
Coupling, uncoupling and photosynthetic control
5.12
Coupling factor
5.13
Thermodynamics of ATP formation
5.14
Relationship between proton transport, electron transport and energy
5.15
The reduction of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP)
PART
B
Chapter 6 The Reductive Pentose Phosphate
Pathway and Associated Reactions
6.1
Photosynthetic Carbon fixation
6.2
Regeneration
6.3
Autocatalysis
6.4
Energetics
6.5
Affinity for CO2
6.6
Carboxylation characteristics summarized
6.7
Formulation of the reductive pentose phosphate pathway
6.8
Kinetic studies
6.9
Transients
6.10
Intra-molecular labelling
6.11
The enzymes
6.12
Free energies
6.13
The operation of the RPP pathway
6.14
Utilization of assimilatory power
6.15
Feedback
6.16
Integration of the RPP pathway and the photorespiratory carbon oxidation cycle
6.17
Carbon traffic through the RPP pathway and the photorespiratory pathway
6.18
Starch synthesis
6.19
Starch degredation
6.20
Regulation of starch synthesis and degradation
6.21
Sucrose synthesis
6.22
Up the carbon path
SUMMARY
Chapter
7 Induction
7.1
Induction in whole plants and leaves
7.2
Historical aspects
7.3
The role of stomata
7.4
Lack of induction in photochemistry
7.5
Induction in vitro
7.6
The molecular basis of induction
7.7
The contribution of autocatalysis
7.8
Light activation of catalysts
7.9
Effects of light intensity and temperature
7.10
Induction and orthophosphate
7.11
Reversal of orthophosphate inhibition by cycle intermediates
7.12
The nature of orthophosphate inhibition
7.13
Induction in O2 evolution and the role of PGA
7.14
Induction in CO2-fixation
7.15
Induction in the reconstituted chloroplast system
7.16
Sequence of events in induction
7.17
Restoration of induction
SUMMARY
Chapter
8 Plastids and Intracellular
Transport
8.1
The chloroplast as a transporting organelle
8.2
The experimental basis of transport studies: fractionation of whole tissue
8.3
The experimental basis of transport studies in vitro
8.4
Chromatographic analysis
8.5
Centrifugal filtration
8.6
Indirect methods of following metabolite movement
8.7
Shortening of induction, reversal of orthophosphate inhibition
8.8
Addition of inhibitors
8.9
Catalysis by intact and ruptured chloroplasts
8.10
Osmotic volume changes
8.11
The movement of metabolites
8.12
Carbon dioxide
8.13
Triose phosphates and 3-phosphoglycerate
8.14
Orthophosphate and inorganic pyrophosphate
8.15
Pentose and hexose monophosphates
8.16
Sugar bisphosphates
8.17
Free sugars
8.18
Carboxylic acids
8.19
Amino acids
8.20
ATP and NADP
8.21
Ion fluxes
8.22
Specific permeability of the inner envelope
8.23
The phosphate translocator
8.24
The dicarboxylate translocator
8.25
The adenylate translocator
8.26
Shuttles
SUMMARY
Chapter
9 The Regulation of Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation
9.1
General principles
9.2
Regulation of catalysis
9.3
Activation of catalysts
9.4
Regulation of catalysis and activation of catalysts - distinction
9.5
Dark deactivation
9.6
Mass action
9.7
Regulation by transport
9.8
Consequences of regulation
9.9
Addendum
SUMMARY
Chapter
10 Discovery of the C4 pathway
10.1
C4 dicarboxylic acids as early products of photosynthesis
10.2
Contributions by Hatch and Slack
10.3
Metabolism of C4 dicarboxylic acids
10.4
Anatomy of photosynthetic tissue of C4 plants
10.5
Isolation of chloroplasts, protoplasts and cells from C4 plants
10.6
Current simplified scheme of C4 photosynthesis
10.7
When can a species be considered C4?
l0.8
C4 photosynthesis and development
SUMMARY
Chapter 11 Three C4 subgroups: Biochemistry, Photochemistry and Taxonomy
11.1
The carboxylation phase of the C4 pathway
11.2
The decarboxylation phase of the C4 pathway
11.3
Summary of proposed major sequences of carbon flow through three
decarboxylating mechanisms
11.4
Charge balance in intercellular transport through the C4 cycle
11.5
Intercellular localization of the RPP pathway in C4 plants
11.6
Photochemical requirements in C4 photosynthesis
11.7
Photochemical differences in chloroplast types
11.8
Taxonomy
SUMMARY
Chapter
12 Integration of Functions in C4 Photosynthesis.
l2.1
Intracellular localization of enzymes of the C4 cycle in mesophyll cells.
12.2
Enzyme localization and intracellular metabolite transport in the C4 cycle in
bundle sheath cells
12.3
Evidence for photosynthetic functions of mesophyll cells
12.4
Evidence for photosynthetic functions of bundle sheath cells
12.5
Mechanism of intracellular metabolite transport
12.6
Mechanism of intercellular metabolite transport
12.7
C4 metabolism linked to cyclic.pseudocyclic and non-cyclic
photophosphorylation
12.8
Regulation of enzymes of the C4 cycle
12.9
Nitrogen assimilation - C4 versus C3 plants
12.10
Starch and sucrose synthesis in C4 plants.
SUMMARY
Chapter
13 Photorespiration
13.1
Introduction
13.2
Recognition
13.3
Origin of glycolate
13.4
The glycolate pathway in C3 plants
13.5
Simplified scheme of carbon flow in the glycolate pathway
13.6
Reactions of the glycolate pathway and energy requirements
13.7
Intracellular localization of enzymes of the glycolate pathway
13.8
Metabolism of isolated organelles in relation to the glycolate pathway
13.9
The glycolate pathway in C4 plants
13.10
O2 inhibition of photosynthesis and its components
13.11
Percentage inhibition of photosynthesis by O2
13.12
O2 effect on quantum yield
l3.l2a
Damping of O2 inhibition through feedback inhibition
13.13
Suggested roles for photorespiration
13.14
Improved growth of C3 plants under low O2 or enriched CO2
environments
SUMMARY
Chapter
14 Primary Carboxylases and Environmental Regulation of Photosynthesis and
Transpiration
14.1
Introduction
14.2
Composition of atmosphere and solubility of gases
14.3
C3 plants - RBP carboxylase
14.4
C4 plants - PEP and RBP carboxylase
14.5
Influence of temperature, light, and water stress on carboxylation
14.6
Water use efficiency
l4.6a
Nitrogen use efficiency
14.7
C3, C4, and crop yield
SUMMARY
15.1
Introduction
15.2
Discovery
15.3
The Wood and Werkman reaction
15.4
The path of carbon in CAM
15.5
Carbon dioxide as a metabolite in the dark
15.6
The inverse relationship between substrate and product
15.7
The enzymes concerned in acidification and deacidification
15.8
The double carboxylation hypothesis
15.9
Light acidification
15.10
Energy requirements in CAM
15.11
CAM mode versus C3 mode
l5.lla
CAM cycling
l5.llb
CAM idling
15.12
Isotope fractionation in CAM relative to C3, C4
15.13
The relationship between CAM and C4
15.14
Ecological significance of CAM
Chapter
16 Comparative Studies of C3, C4 Metabolism in Other Plant Tissue
16.1
Stomata
16.2
C3, C4 photosynthesis in reproductive tissue
16.3
Greening leaves
16.4
Roots
16.5
Ionic balance and pH-stat
16.6
Malate metabolism in the glyoxylate cycle of germinating seedlings
SUMMARY
APPENDICES
Appendix
A Chloroplast Isolation and
Criteria of Intactness
A.1
Introduction
A.2
Methods
A.3
Growth of plants
A.5
Chloroplasts from protoplasts
A.5a
Criteria for determining intactness of protoplasts
A.6
Advantages and disadvantages of mechanical versus enzymatic procedures
A.7
Criteria for determining intactness of chloroplasts
A.8
Purification
A.9
Chloroplast envelopes
Appendix
B. Enzyme nomenclature
B.1.
Reductive pentose phosphate pathway
B.2.
The glycolate pathway
B.3.
Metabolism of triose phosphate to sucrose
B.4.
Starch synthesis from triose phosphate
B.5.
C4 pathway
B.6.
Crassulacean acid metabolism
B.7.
Nitrate metabolism